汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的快速命名缺陷:副中央凹预视效益小和负荷代价大之争
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摘要
关于汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的快速命名缺陷存在两种理论争论:副中央凹预视效益小和副中央凹负荷代价大。本研究采用修订的汉字快速命名范式,操纵副中央凹预视和负荷两个变量,记录阅读障碍、年龄匹配以及能力匹配儿童的眼动轨迹,区分两种理论争论。结果发现阅读障碍儿童在副中央凹预视效益量上小于年龄匹配组,但在负荷代价上并无显著差异。结果支持汉语阅读障碍儿童快速命名缺陷源于副中央凹预视效益小,而非负荷代价大的观点。
Rapid automatized naming(RAN) deficit is one of the cognitive deficits of dyslexic in both alphabetic and Chinese languages. Two hypotheses have been put forward to account for the RAN dysfunction in dyslexic: reduced parafoveal preview benefits and increased parafoveal load costs. At present, these two hypotheses have not been distinguished because previous studies have only manipulated one of the two variables in one experiment; However, the manipulations of parafoveal preview and parafoveal load are correlational. The present study tests two hypotheses directly by manipulating the parafoveal load and parafoveal preview in single experiment, in order to distinguish the two hypotheses in terms of the accounts for the RAN deficits of children with dyslexia.The modified RAN paradigm proposal is used. The stimulus set is composed of 28 RAN matrices containing 5 familiar characters. All letters occur equally, and they are pseudo randomly ordered such that there are no immediate repetitions. The spatial arrangement of the traditional 5 × 10-item matrix is modified, such that character items are irregularly spaced within each row. Half the items stand in the right parafoveal span of the preceding item and thus they can be parafoveally previewed(P). The other half stand beyond the parafoveal span of N-1(nP). Half the items are followed by parafoveal inputs at the right(L) and the other half are not(nL). Three groups of children are selected as participants: children with developmental dyslexia(DD), chronological age-matched(CA) and reading level-matched(RL). The parafoveal preview benefit is computed with the formula(non-previewed-previewed)/previewed, indicating the proportion of the fixation time for previewed items(PL+PnL) that is additionally required when looking at items with no preview(nPL+nPnL). Similarly, the parafoveal load cost is computed as the proportion of the fixation time for non-loaded items(PnL+nPnL) that is additionally required when there is a parafoveal load(PL+nPL). The formula is(loaded-non-loaded)/non-loaded.All three groups of children show significant parafoveal preview benefit for the measure of gaze duration(ts > 4.43, ps <.001), but the amount of preview benefit across three groups do not reach significance. The significant effect on the measures of total fixation time is only observed for agematched children(t(14) = 4.70, p <.001). For the amount of parafoveal load, there are no significant differences across three groups of children for measures of gaze duration and total fixation time. These results above indicate that Chinese dyslexia children show less parafoveal preview benefit than age-matched children, but parafoveal loads are not significant between the two groups. The present study yields robust evidence, supporting the first account of RAN deficit, that the parafoveal dysfunction of Chinese dyslexia children is due to their reduced parafoveal preview benefits.
Rapid automatized naming(RAN) deficit is one of the cognitive deficits of dyslexic in both alphabetic and Chinese languages. Two hypotheses have been put forward to account for the RAN dysfunction in dyslexic: reduced parafoveal preview benefits and increased parafoveal load costs. At present, these two hypotheses have not been distinguished because previous studies have only manipulated one of the two variables in one experiment; However, the manipulations of parafoveal preview and parafoveal load are correlational. The present study tests two hypotheses directly by manipulating the parafoveal load and parafoveal preview in single experiment, in order to distinguish the two hypotheses in terms of the accounts for the RAN deficits of children with dyslexia.The modified RAN paradigm proposal is used. The stimulus set is composed of 28 RAN matrices containing 5 familiar characters. All letters occur equally, and they are pseudo randomly ordered such that there are no immediate repetitions. The spatial arrangement of the traditional 5 × 10-item matrix is modified, such that character items are irregularly spaced within each row. Half the items stand in the right parafoveal span of the preceding item and thus they can be parafoveally previewed(P). The other half stand beyond the parafoveal span of N-1(nP). Half the items are followed by parafoveal inputs at the right(L) and the other half are not(nL). Three groups of children are selected as participants: children with developmental dyslexia(DD), chronological age-matched(CA) and reading level-matched(RL). The parafoveal preview benefit is computed with the formula(non-previewed-previewed)/previewed, indicating the proportion of the fixation time for previewed items(PL+PnL) that is additionally required when looking at items with no preview(nPL+nPnL). Similarly, the parafoveal load cost is computed as the proportion of the fixation time for non-loaded items(PnL+nPnL) that is additionally required when there is a parafoveal load(PL+nPL). The formula is(loaded-non-loaded)/non-loaded.All three groups of children show significant parafoveal preview benefit for the measure of gaze duration(ts > 4.43, ps <.001), but the amount of preview benefit across three groups do not reach significance. The significant effect on the measures of total fixation time is only observed for agematched children(t(14) = 4.70, p <.001). For the amount of parafoveal load, there are no significant differences across three groups of children for measures of gaze duration and total fixation time. These results above indicate that Chinese dyslexia children show less parafoveal preview benefit than age-matched children, but parafoveal loads are not significant between the two groups. The present study yields robust evidence, supporting the first account of RAN deficit, that the parafoveal dysfunction of Chinese dyslexia children is due to their reduced parafoveal preview benefits.
引文
李丹,胡克定,陈国鹏,金瑜,李眉.(1988).瑞文测验联合型(CRT)上海市区试测报告.心理科学,11(4),27-31.
王孝玲,陶保平.(1996).小学生识字量测试题库及评价量表.上海:上海教育出版社.
熊建萍.(2014).汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的眼动研究.天津师范大学博士学位论文.
周晓林,孟祥芝,陈宜张.(2002).发展性阅读障碍的脑功能成像研究.中国神经科学杂志,18(2),568-572.
Araújo,S.,Pacheco,A.,Faísca,L.,Petersson,K.M.,&Reis,A.(2010).Visual rapid naming and phonological abilities:Different subtypes in dyslexic children.International Journal of Psychology,45(6),443-452.
Bouma,H.(1973).Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words.Vision Research,13(4),767-782.
Callens,M.,Whitney,C.,Tops,W.,&Brysbaert,M.(2013).No deficiency in leftto-right processing of words in dyslexia but evidence for enhanced visual crowding.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,66(9),1803-1817.
Denckla,M.,&Rudel,R.(1974).Rapid"automatized"naming of pictured objects,colors,letters and numbers by normal children.Cortex,10(2),186-202.
Drieghe,D.,Cui,L.,Yan,G.L.,Bai,X.J.,Chi,H.,&Liversedge,S.P.(2018).The morphosyntactic structure of compound words influences parafoveal processing in Chinese reading.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,71(1),190-197.
Giudice,E.D.,Trojano,L.,Fragassi,N.A.,Posteraro,S.,Crisanti,A.F.,Tanzarella,P.,&Grossi,D.(2000).Spatial cognition in children.II.Visuospatial and constructional skills in developmental reading disability.Brain and Development,22(6),368-372.
Jones,M.W.,Ashby,J.,&Branigan,H.P.(2013).Dyslexia and fluency:Parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,39(2),554-567.
Jones,M.W.,Kelly,M.L.,&Corle,M.(2007).Adult dyslexic readers do not demonstrate regularity effects in sentence processing:Evidence from eyemovements.Reading and Writing,20(9),933-943.
Liao,C.H.,Deng,C.,Hamilton,J.,Lee,C.S.C.,Wei,W.,&Georgiou,G.K.(2015).The role of rapid naming in reading development and dyslexia in Chinese.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,130,106-122.
Liversedge,S.P.,Drieghe,D.,Li,X.,Yan,G.L.,Bai,X.J.,&Hy?n?,J.(2016).Universality in eye movements and reading:A trilingual investigation.Cognition,147,1-20.
Lyon,G.R.,Shaywitz,S.E.,&Shaywitz,B.A.(2003).A definition of dyslexia.Annals of Dyslexia,53(1),1-14.
Meng,X.Z.,Cheng-Lai,A.,Zeng,B.,Stein,J.F.,&Zhou,X.L.(2011).Dynamic visual perception and reading development in Chinese school children.Annals of Dyslexia,61(2),161-176.
Misra,M.,Katzir,T.,Wolf,M.,&Poldrack,R.A.(2004).Neural systems for rapid automatized naming in skilled readers:Unraveling the ran-reading relationship.Scientific Studies of Reading,8(3),241-256.
Moll,K.,&Jones,M.(2013).Naming fluency in dyslexic and nondyslexic readers:Differential effects of visual crowding in foveal,parafoveal,and peripheral vision.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,66(11),2085-2091.
Norton,E.S.,&Wolf,M.(2012).Rapid automatized naming(RAN)and reading fluency:Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities.Annual Review of Psychology,63(1),427-452.
Ozernov-Palchik,O.,Norton,E.S.,Sideridis,G.,Beach,S.D.,Wolf,M.,Gabrieli,J.D.E.,et al.(2016).Longitudinal stability of pre-reading skill profiles of kindergarten children:Implications for early screening and theories of reading.Developmental Science,20(5),e12471.
Pan,J.,McBride-Chang,C.,Shu,H.,Liu,H.Y.,Zhang,Y.P.,&Li,H.(2011).What is in the naming?A 5-year longitudinal study of early rapid naming and phonological sensitivity in relation to subsequent reading skills in both native Chinese and English as a second language.Journal of Educational Psychology,103(4),897-908.
Rayner,K.(1986).Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,41(2),211-236.
Shaywitz,S.E.,&Shaywitz,B.A.(2008).Paying attention to reading:The neurobiology of reading and dyslexia.Development and Psychopathology,20(4),1329-1349.
Shu,H.,McBride-Chang,C.,Wu,S.N.,&Liu,H.Y.(2006).Understanding Chinese developmental dyslexia:Morphological awareness as a core cognitive construct.Journal of Educational Psychology,98(1),122-133.
Silva,S.,Faísca,L.,Araújo,S.,Casaca,L.,Carvalho,L.,Petersson,K.M.,et al.(2016).Too little or too much?Parafoveal preview benefits and parafoveal load costs in dyslexic adults.Annals of Dyslexia,66(2),187-201.
Sperlich,A.,Schad,D.J.,&Laubrock,J.(2015).When preview information starts to matter:Development of the perceptual span in German beginning readers.Journal of Cognitive Psychology,27(5),511-530.
Vasilev,M.R.,&Angele,B.(2017).Parafoveal preview effects from word N+1and word N+2 during reading:A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis.Psychonomic Bulletin and Review,24(3),666-689.
Yan,M.,Pan,J.,Laubrock,J.,Kliegl,R.,&Shu,H.(2013).Parafoveal processing efficiency in rapid automatized naming:A comparison between Chinese normal and dyslexic children.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,115(3),579-589.
Zhou,Y.L.,McBride-Chang,C.,Law,A.B.Y.,Tong,L.,Cheung,A.C.Y.,Wong,A.M.Y.,&Shu,H.(2014).Development of reading-related skills in Chinese and English among Hong Kong Chinese children with and without dyslexia.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,122(1),75-91.
Zoccolotti,P.,De Luca,M.,Lami,L.,Pizzoli,C.,Pontillo,M.,&Spinelli,D.(2013).Multiple stimulus presentation yields larger deficits in children with developmental dyslexia:A study with reading and RAN-type tasks.Child Neuropsychology,19(6),639-647.
王孝玲,陶保平.(1996).小学生识字量测试题库及评价量表.上海:上海教育出版社.
熊建萍.(2014).汉语发展性阅读障碍儿童的眼动研究.天津师范大学博士学位论文.
周晓林,孟祥芝,陈宜张.(2002).发展性阅读障碍的脑功能成像研究.中国神经科学杂志,18(2),568-572.
Araújo,S.,Pacheco,A.,Faísca,L.,Petersson,K.M.,&Reis,A.(2010).Visual rapid naming and phonological abilities:Different subtypes in dyslexic children.International Journal of Psychology,45(6),443-452.
Bouma,H.(1973).Visual interference in the parafoveal recognition of initial and final letters of words.Vision Research,13(4),767-782.
Callens,M.,Whitney,C.,Tops,W.,&Brysbaert,M.(2013).No deficiency in leftto-right processing of words in dyslexia but evidence for enhanced visual crowding.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,66(9),1803-1817.
Denckla,M.,&Rudel,R.(1974).Rapid"automatized"naming of pictured objects,colors,letters and numbers by normal children.Cortex,10(2),186-202.
Drieghe,D.,Cui,L.,Yan,G.L.,Bai,X.J.,Chi,H.,&Liversedge,S.P.(2018).The morphosyntactic structure of compound words influences parafoveal processing in Chinese reading.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,71(1),190-197.
Giudice,E.D.,Trojano,L.,Fragassi,N.A.,Posteraro,S.,Crisanti,A.F.,Tanzarella,P.,&Grossi,D.(2000).Spatial cognition in children.II.Visuospatial and constructional skills in developmental reading disability.Brain and Development,22(6),368-372.
Jones,M.W.,Ashby,J.,&Branigan,H.P.(2013).Dyslexia and fluency:Parafoveal and foveal influences on rapid automatized naming.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,39(2),554-567.
Jones,M.W.,Kelly,M.L.,&Corle,M.(2007).Adult dyslexic readers do not demonstrate regularity effects in sentence processing:Evidence from eyemovements.Reading and Writing,20(9),933-943.
Liao,C.H.,Deng,C.,Hamilton,J.,Lee,C.S.C.,Wei,W.,&Georgiou,G.K.(2015).The role of rapid naming in reading development and dyslexia in Chinese.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,130,106-122.
Liversedge,S.P.,Drieghe,D.,Li,X.,Yan,G.L.,Bai,X.J.,&Hy?n?,J.(2016).Universality in eye movements and reading:A trilingual investigation.Cognition,147,1-20.
Lyon,G.R.,Shaywitz,S.E.,&Shaywitz,B.A.(2003).A definition of dyslexia.Annals of Dyslexia,53(1),1-14.
Meng,X.Z.,Cheng-Lai,A.,Zeng,B.,Stein,J.F.,&Zhou,X.L.(2011).Dynamic visual perception and reading development in Chinese school children.Annals of Dyslexia,61(2),161-176.
Misra,M.,Katzir,T.,Wolf,M.,&Poldrack,R.A.(2004).Neural systems for rapid automatized naming in skilled readers:Unraveling the ran-reading relationship.Scientific Studies of Reading,8(3),241-256.
Moll,K.,&Jones,M.(2013).Naming fluency in dyslexic and nondyslexic readers:Differential effects of visual crowding in foveal,parafoveal,and peripheral vision.Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,66(11),2085-2091.
Norton,E.S.,&Wolf,M.(2012).Rapid automatized naming(RAN)and reading fluency:Implications for understanding and treatment of reading disabilities.Annual Review of Psychology,63(1),427-452.
Ozernov-Palchik,O.,Norton,E.S.,Sideridis,G.,Beach,S.D.,Wolf,M.,Gabrieli,J.D.E.,et al.(2016).Longitudinal stability of pre-reading skill profiles of kindergarten children:Implications for early screening and theories of reading.Developmental Science,20(5),e12471.
Pan,J.,McBride-Chang,C.,Shu,H.,Liu,H.Y.,Zhang,Y.P.,&Li,H.(2011).What is in the naming?A 5-year longitudinal study of early rapid naming and phonological sensitivity in relation to subsequent reading skills in both native Chinese and English as a second language.Journal of Educational Psychology,103(4),897-908.
Rayner,K.(1986).Eye movements and the perceptual span in beginning and skilled readers.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,41(2),211-236.
Shaywitz,S.E.,&Shaywitz,B.A.(2008).Paying attention to reading:The neurobiology of reading and dyslexia.Development and Psychopathology,20(4),1329-1349.
Shu,H.,McBride-Chang,C.,Wu,S.N.,&Liu,H.Y.(2006).Understanding Chinese developmental dyslexia:Morphological awareness as a core cognitive construct.Journal of Educational Psychology,98(1),122-133.
Silva,S.,Faísca,L.,Araújo,S.,Casaca,L.,Carvalho,L.,Petersson,K.M.,et al.(2016).Too little or too much?Parafoveal preview benefits and parafoveal load costs in dyslexic adults.Annals of Dyslexia,66(2),187-201.
Sperlich,A.,Schad,D.J.,&Laubrock,J.(2015).When preview information starts to matter:Development of the perceptual span in German beginning readers.Journal of Cognitive Psychology,27(5),511-530.
Vasilev,M.R.,&Angele,B.(2017).Parafoveal preview effects from word N+1and word N+2 during reading:A critical review and Bayesian meta-analysis.Psychonomic Bulletin and Review,24(3),666-689.
Yan,M.,Pan,J.,Laubrock,J.,Kliegl,R.,&Shu,H.(2013).Parafoveal processing efficiency in rapid automatized naming:A comparison between Chinese normal and dyslexic children.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,115(3),579-589.
Zhou,Y.L.,McBride-Chang,C.,Law,A.B.Y.,Tong,L.,Cheung,A.C.Y.,Wong,A.M.Y.,&Shu,H.(2014).Development of reading-related skills in Chinese and English among Hong Kong Chinese children with and without dyslexia.Journal of Experimental Child Psychology,122(1),75-91.
Zoccolotti,P.,De Luca,M.,Lami,L.,Pizzoli,C.,Pontillo,M.,&Spinelli,D.(2013).Multiple stimulus presentation yields larger deficits in children with developmental dyslexia:A study with reading and RAN-type tasks.Child Neuropsychology,19(6),639-647.