摘要
在西方国家政府结构中,文官扮演着重要的角色,创立于19世纪中后期的文官制度,也是西方现代民主政治的重要组成部分。进入20世纪之后,特别是第一次世界大战结束以来,为了适应社会政治、经济、文化、科技等领域迅速发展的需求,建设更为高效、廉洁和民主的现代政府,以英美为代表的西方发达国家开始普遍重视加强针对文官的培训工作,文官培训遂成为英美政府人事管理及文官制度的基础性环节。
第二次世界大战之后,由于政府行政事务的日益繁杂及专业化趋势的凸显,作为提高文官综合素质、行政工作效率和服务水平的基本方式之一,文官培训的重要性与日俱增。为了进一步加强和规范培训工作,英美两国政府以法律或政令的方式将文官培训纳入到制度化发展的轨道。1945年,英国政府根据《阿什顿报告》的建议,成立了统一领导文官培训工作的财政部培训教育司,20世纪60年代又创办了专门从事文官培训工作的行政管理研究中心,基本完成了文官培训的制度化历程。1968年《富尔顿报告》公布之后,英国文官培训的制度建设得到进一步的完善。在美国,1958年《政府雇员培训法》的颁布标志着其文官培训制度的确立,20世纪60年代,美国政府也成立了文官培训的专门机构：行政习明纳中心和联邦行政学院,为各级文官提供多样化的培训机会。20世纪70年代,英美文官培训在相关法律、政令的制度保障下稳步发展,其作为两国文官制度基础组成部分的地位得以巩固。
20世纪70年代末兴起于西方国家的政府改革运动为此后文官培训的快速发展提供了契机。英国的撒切尔政府和美国的卡特政府均对文官培训进行了大规模改革,文官培训制度的市场化、多样化、灵活性等特征在改革的推动下逐渐形成,培训的普及程度大幅提高,培训的质量效果明显增强。与此同时,为了顺应社会各领域发展的新要求,两国的文官培训也呈现出各具特色的发展趋势。
作为西方民主国家的典型代表,英美两国在各自的文官培训制度产生、发展过程中,形成了若干符合现代民主国家发展趋势的基本特征,如都坚持效率优先的培训目标,在培训内容方面体现了综合性和广泛性,建立起立体化的培训网络,开发出多样化的培训方式等。同时,由于两国具体的政治、社会环境以及历史传统的独特性,其文官培训在指导理念、培训内容和方式方法上也存在诸多差异。从历史的角度探讨、分析英美文官培训制度的主要特征,比较两国文官培训制度的不同表现,有助于我们全面理解两国的文官培训制度,进而把握西方民主国家文官培训制度的基本格局。
自20世纪80年代开始探索建立现代公务员制度以来,我国在公务员培训方面已经取得了一定进展,如在培训内容的拓展、培训形式的多样化、培训机构的建立健全方面都有明显的改善。但就公务员培训的制度建设而言,我国还存在着一系列明显的问题,特别是在培训的法制化、管理的体系化等方面仍有待进一步完善。在这一领域,尽管我国与英美等西方发达国家的政治制度完全不同,文官(公务员)制度有着本质的区别,但从培训的角度来看,英美在建立、健全本国文官培训制度进程中形成的一些具有普遍意义的经验,对我国不无借鉴价值。
Civil Servant plays a very important role in the governments of western countries. The Civil Service System, which was establishment in the late 19th centry, is an important integral part of the western mordon democracy. In the 20th centry, especially since the First World War, in order to adapt to social, political, economic, cultural, scientific and technological needs of a rapidly developing field, and build more efficient, clean and modern democratic government, the Britian and the United States have started to strengthen the training of civil service. The civil service training became the basic part of the government personnel management in the Britian and the United States.
After the Second World War, the government affairs were more complex and specialized. As one of the basic approaches that improving the overall quality, administrative efficiency and service levels of the civil service, the importance of civil service training was increasing rapidly. In order to strengthen and standardize the training, the Britian and the United States institutionized the civil service training by laws or council orders. In 1945, according to the proposal of the Assheton Report, the Britian government established the Treasure Training and Education Division as the highest institution of the management of civil service training. In the 1960s, the government found the Centre for Administrative Studies that specializing in the civil service training, which completed the institutionalization of the civil service training. After the Fulton Report in 1968, the British civil service training system improved furtherly. In the United States, the enactment of the Government Employees Training Act in 1958 marks the establishment of the civil service training system. In the 1960s, the United States government found the Executive Seminar Center and the Federal Executive Institute, which gave the civil service more chances of training. In the 1970s, the Britian and the United States civil service training developed steadily with the guarantee of the related bills and orders. The training's status as the basic component part of the civil service system was strengthened.
The western countries'government reform movement that rised in the late 1970s provided a good opportunity for the rapid development of the civil service training. The Thatcher Government in the Britian and the Carter Government in the United States reformed the civil service training in the same time. After the reform, the two countries civil service training system formed the characters of marketization, diversity and flexibility. There was a substantial increase in the training scale and quality. At the same time, in order to comply with the new requirements of the development in the every social field, the two countries training systems showed different trends.
As the typical representatives of the western democratic countries, the Britian and the United States formed some basic charecters according with the development trands of modern democratic country in the formation, development of the civil service training system, such as giving priority to efficiency of the training objectives, comprehensive training content, multi-level training network, and various training way. As the same time, because there are some differents in the political, social environment, as well as the historical tradition between the two countries, there are also many differences in the concept of civil service training in guidance, training content and methods. It wil be helpful for us to fully understand the civil service training system and grasp the basic structure of western counties' training system to study its main characters of the two counties in the perspective of history and comparison.
From the 1980s, China set up to establish the civil service system and made some progress in the civil service training, such as in the expansion of the training content, the varieties of the training way, and the foundation of the training institution. But there are still obvious problems in the legislation and management of civil service training. In such fields, the western developed countries, especially the Britian and the United States can give us some constructive inspirations in the building of the civil service training system with Chinese characteristics.
引文
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①该委员会由“文官委员会”(即1855年设立的文官委员会)的成员之一任主席。
②参见Emmeline W. Cohen. The Growth of the British Civil Service,1780-1939[M]. London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd.1941:166-168.
①参见陈乐桥.英美文官制度[M].上海：商务印书馆,1935：43-44.
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①1860年成立的负责调查英国文官考试制度的委员会,由斯坦利勋爵(Lord Stanley)任主席。
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① Emmeline W. Cohen. The Growth of the British Civil Service,1780-1939[M]. London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd.1941:179.另：速记员和打字员级文官后并入助理文书级文官之列。
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① Fulton Committee. The Civil Service Vol.1 Report of the Committee 1966-68[R]. London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office.1968.
② Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:88.
③ Fulton Committee. The Civil Service Vol.1 Report of the Committee 1966-68[R]. London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office.1968:11-13.
① Fulton Committee. The Civil Service Vol.1 Report of the Committee 1966-68[R]. London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office.1968:35.
② Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:95.
① Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:44.
② Fulton Committee. The Civil Service Vol.1 Report of the Committee 1966-68[R]. London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office.1968:36.
① Fulton Committee. The Civil Service Vol.1 Report of the Committee 1966-68[R]. London:Her Majesty's Stationary Office.1968:39.
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③ Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
① Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
② Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
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④ Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
⑤龚祥瑞.文官制度[M].北京：人民出版社,1985：59.
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② Robert Maranto, David Schultz. A Short History of the United States Civil Service[M]. Lanham:University Press of America, Inc.1991:107.
①石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：136.
③ David A. Schultz, Robert Maroto. The Politics of Civil Service Reform[M]. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.1998:128.
④石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：64.
① David A. Schultz, Robert Maroto. The Politics of Civil Service Reform[M]. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.1998:130.
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③ Paul P. Van Riper. History of the United States Civil Service[M]. Evanston, Illinois:Row, Peterson and Company.1958:377-378.
①Training Policy Handbook[Z]. Washington D.C.:US Office of Personnel Management.2006:3.
① Training Policy Handbook[Z]. Washington D.C.:US Office of Personnel Management.2006:3.
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③ Sec.4109, Chapter 41 of Title 5, United States Code[EB/OL]. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=5USCPIII
① Civil Service Commission. Employee Training in the Federal Service, Fiscal Year 1969[R]. Washington D. C.: US Government Printing Office.1970:6.
② Michael Cohen, Robert T. Golembiewski. Public Personnel Update[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1984:234.
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⑤ Civil Service Commission. Employee Training in the Federal Service, Fiscal Year 1977[R]. Washington D. C.: US Government Printing Office.1978:11,22.
①李和中.比较公务员制度[M].北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：126.
① Civil Service Commission. Employee Training in the Federal Service, Fiscal Year 1977[R]. Washington D. C.: US Government Printing Office.1978:iii.
①龚祥瑞.文官制度[M].北京：人民出版社,1985：53.
①阎照祥.英国政治制度史[M].北京：人民出版社,1999：439.
②[英]雨果·扬格.铁女人：撒切尔夫人传[M].汤玉明等译.西安：西北大学出版社,1990：165.
③Gavin Drewry, Tony Butcher. The Civil Service Today[M]. Oxford:Basil Blackwell.1988:199,201.
①吴佩纶,齐明山.当代西方行政改革的理论与实践[M].北京：改革出版社,1992：382.
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③参见Gavin Drewry, Tony Butcher. The Civil Service Today[M]. Oxford:Basil Blackwell.1988:198-207.
①Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
② Morton R. Davies, etc. Serving the State:Global Public Administration Education and Training. Vol.1 [M]. Aldershot:Ashgate Publishing Ltd.1998:88.
①Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:102.
①张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[Ml.北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：334.
②赵锦良,鲁仁等.世界各国公务员制度[M].北京：中国广播电视大学出版社,1988：24-25.
①张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：334-335.
② Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service since 1945[M]. Oxford:Blackwell Publishers Ltd.1995:129-130.
③张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：336.
① Gavin Drewry, Tony Butcher. The Civil Service Today[M]. Oxford:Basil Blackwell.1988:113.
② National School of Government. National School of Government:A Review of the First Year[M]. Sunningdale 2007:12.
①张素玲.英国国家行政学院：历史变迁、培训实施及其启示[J].中国浦东干部学院学报,2008(4).
①Gavin Drewry, Tony Butcher. The Civil Service Today[M]. Oxford:Basil Blackwell.1988:112.
②钟振芳等.“行政院”人事行政局95年度英国考察报告[Rl.台北：“行政院”人事行政局,2006：6-7.
③钟振芳等.“行政院”人事行政局95年度英国考察报告[Rl.台北：“行政院”人事行政局,2006：7.
④张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：338.
①张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：341-342,352-256.
①张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：343-344.
① Frederick C. Mosher. Democracy and the Public Service[M]. New York:Oxford University Press.1982:104.
② David A. Schultz, Robert Maroto. The Politics of Civil Service Reform[M]. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.1998:149.
③石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：67.
④刘绪贻.战后美国史：1945-2000[M].北京：人民出版社,2002：435-436.
⑤ George J. Gordon. Public Administration in America[M]. New York:St. Martin's Press.1978:245.
①沈学善,张脉强.当代世界史：1945-1990[M],南京：南京大学出版社,1991：79.
②[美]杰伊·M.谢夫列兹等.政府人事管理[Ml.彭和平译.北京：中共中央党校出版社,1997：25.
③参见李和中.比较公务员制度[M].北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：108.
① Mark W. Huddleston, William W. Boyer. The Higher Civil Services in the United States:Quest for Reform[M]. Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press.1996:94.
②李和中.比较公务员制度[M].北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：109.
③这九条原则的具体内容参见：Civil Service Reform Act of 1978[EB/OL]. http://www.eeoc.gov/abouteeoc/35th/thelaw/civil_service_reform-1978.html.
④石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：139.
①李和中.比较公务员制度[M].北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：110-111.
② Civil Service Reform Act of 1978[EB/OL]. http://www.eeoc.gov/abouteeoc/35th/thelaw/civil_service_reform-1978.html.
①石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：68-69.
②石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：140.
① Jack Rabin. Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc,1983:194.
①详见谢有为.美国文官制度论[M].台北：国立编译馆,1986：213-214.
② Jack Rabin. Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc,1983:194.
①吴志华.美国公务员制度的改革与转型[M1.上海：上海交通大学出版社,2006：26.
② Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D. C. Heath and Company.1985:182.
① Malcolm W. Warren. Training for Results:A System Approach to the Development of Human Resources in Industry[M]. Massachusetts:Addison-Wesley.1979:6.
② Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D. C. Heath and Company.1985:182.
③ Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D. C. Heath and Company.1985:182.
① Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D. C. Heath and Company.1985:182.
② US Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States:2000[Z]. Washington DC:US Government Printing Office.2001:343.
③ David A. Schultz, Robert Maroto. The Politics of Civil Service Reform[M]. New York:Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.1998:156-157.
①李和中.比较公务员制度[Ml.北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：127.
② Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D. C. Heath and Company.1985:188-190.
①张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社，1999：47,50.
②单中惠.西方领导教育史[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2008：282.
① Frank P. Sherwood. Selected Papers:Executive Development and the Federal Executive Institute[M]. Charlottesville:Federal Executive Institute.1971:43.
② Civil Service Commission. Employee Training in the Federal Service, Fiscal Year 1969[R]. Washington D. C.: US Government Printing Office.1970:6.
③张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社，1999：86.
④谢有为.美国文官制度论[M].台北：国立编译馆,1986：192.
① Frank P. Sherwood. Selected Papers:Executive Development and the Federal Executive Institute[M]. Charlottesville:Federal Executive Institute.1971:44.
②张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：88.
①关于领导艺术培训的具体内容,参见谢有为.美国文官制度论[M].台北：国立编译馆,1986：192-193；张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：90-94；Frank P. Sherwood. Selected Papers:Executive Development and the Federal Executive Institute[M]. Charlottesville:Federal Executive Institute.1971:46-50.
①http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Executive Institute.2009/4/10.
②[美]莫顿·凯勒,菲利斯·凯勒.哈佛走向现代：美国大学的崛起[M].史静寰等译.北京：清华大学出版社,2007：189.
③[美]莫顿·凯勒,菲利斯·凯勒.哈佛走向现代：美国大学的崛起[M].史静寰等译.北京：清华大学出版社,2007：192,193.
④[美]莫顿·凯勒,菲利斯·凯勒.哈佛走向现代：美国大学的崛起[M].史静寰等译.北京：清华大学出版社,2007：391.
①[美]莫顿·凯勒,菲利斯·凯勒.哈佛走向现代：美国大学的崛起[M].史静寰等译.北京：清华大学出版社,2007：659,663.
②参见张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：106-107.
①Senior Executive Fellows[EB/OL]. http://ksgexecprogram.harvard.edu/app/sef.pdf.2009/4/16.
② Senior Executive Fellows[EB/OL]. http://ksgexecprogram.harvard.edu/app/sef.pdf.2009/4/16.
③参见张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：108-109.
① Jay M. Shafritz, Albert C. Hyde, David H. Rosenbloom. Personnel Management in Government:Politics and Process[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc.,1986:400.
②单中惠.西方领导教育史[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社,2008：281.
①参见石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：124.
② Sec.4109, Chapter 41 of Title 5, United States Code[EB/OL]. http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/usc.cgi?ACTION=BROWSE&TITLE=5USCPIII
③ Mark W. Huddleston, William W. Boyer. The Higher Civil Services in the United States:Quest for Reform[M]. Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press.1996:94.
① Jack Rabin. Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc.1983:214.
①颜莉.英国公务员培训的新发展fJl.中国公务员,2001(4).
②参见张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：98-101.
③参见张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999：399-411.
①参见张修学.国外著名行政院校概览[M].北京：国家行政学院出版社,1999.261-266.
①单中惠.西方领导教育史[M].上海：华东师范大学出版社，2008：283.
②如1973年美国曾颁布《雇员综合培训法》(Comprehensive Employment and Training Act),其中对失业文官的培训措施做出了相应规定,以保障此类文官的就业权利。
① Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D.C. Heath and Company.1985:187.
② Jack Rabin. Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc.1983:211.
①石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[Ml.长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：201.
② Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D.C. Heath and Company.1985:188.
② Jack Rabin. Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc.1983:211.
③ Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D.C. Heath and Company.1985:188-189.
⑤ Jay M. Shafritz, Albert C. Hyde, David H. Rosenbloom. Personnel Management in Government:Politics and Process[M]. New York:Marcel Dekker, Inc.,1986:406.
⑥ Perry Moore. Public Personnel Management:A Contingency Approach[M]. Lexington:D.C. Heath and Company.1985:189.
①石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：207.
①宋玉波.西方国家“文官”任用的基本原则与主要机制(三)[EB/OL]. http://www.txwtxw.cn/Article_Show.asp?ArticleID=11.
①Gavin Drewry, Tony Butcher. The Civil Service Today[M]. Oxford:Basil Blackwell.1988:46.
② Michael Kating. The Politics of Modern Europe:The State and Political Authority in the Major Democracies[M]. Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd.1993:95-100.
③石庆环.英美文官制度的模式差异及其历史影响[J].世界历史,2001(6).
① An act to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States.1883[EB/OL]. U.S. National Archives & Records Administration. URL:http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?doc=48&page=transcript.
③石庆环.英美文官制度的模式差异及其历史影响[J].世界历史,2001(6).
②转引自石庆环.英美文官制度的模式差异及其历史影响[J].世界历史,2001(6).
①周志忍.公务员培训的中外比较——一些宏观层面的思考[J].北京行政学院学报,2005(3).
①参见周志忍.公务员培训的中外比较——一些宏观层面的思考[J].北京行政学院学报,2005(3).
①石庆环.20世纪美国文官制度与官僚政治[M].长春：东北师范大学出版社,2003：218-219.
①李和中.比较公务员制度[M].北京：中共中央党校出版社,2003：89-90.
①中华人民共和国国务院.国家公务员暂行条例(国务院第125号令)[Z],1993.8.14.
②中华人民共和国人事部.国家公务员培训暂行规定(人发[1996]52号)[Z],1996.6.5.
③相关内容参见张国安.我国公务员继续教育途径新探[J].中国浦东干部管理学院学报,2008(2).
④相关内容参见张国安.我国公务员继续教育途径新探[J].中国浦东干部管理学院学报,2008(2).
①中华人民共和国人事部.“十一五”行政机关公务员培训纲要(国办发[2007]8号)[Z],2007.2.7.
①中华人民共和国公务员法[Z].2005.4.27.
②尹蔚民.公务员管理的法制化[J].国家行政学院学报,2001(6).
①中华人民共和国人事部.国家公务员培训暂行规定(人发[1996]52号)[Z],1996.6.5.
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