摘要
火灾烟气对火场人员安全逃生构成巨大的威胁,火灾人员伤亡大多是由火灾烟气造成的。虽然自动水喷雾(淋)系统作为消防设施被广泛应用于建筑中,但这些系统喷出的水颗粒能够扰乱或破坏火灾烟气层的稳定,并可能导致严重的烟气沉降现象,给火灾时人员疏散带来一定的安全隐患。由于缺乏足够的知识去理解该现象,以至于在隧道中是否设置自动水喷雾(淋)系统长期存在争论。目前,几乎没有欧洲国家将自动水喷雾(淋)系统作为常规的隧道消防设施。
研究和预测水颗粒作用下烟气的沉降现象的前提,是充分认识和理解水颗粒与烟气间的相互力作用及传热过程,这涉及复杂的两相流理论。通常,水颗粒对烟气的冷却作用和拖曳力作用被视为烟气在水喷雾(淋)条件下沉降的两个基本机理。在大量假定基础上,甚至忽略水颗粒与火灾烟气间的相互热传递,经典理论指出,通过比较水颗粒对烟气施加的向下拖曳力与烟气自身所具有的向上浮力,可判断烟气层是否会发生沉降。本研究借鉴了此力学平衡思想,但同时指出烟气层内被水颗粒冷却的烟气区域应表现出向下的浮力。由于经典理论忽视了这一点,使得它在一般情况下并不成立,需要进行修正。因此,本研究将建立一个新的模型,该模型可用于现有火灾区域模型,来预测在水颗粒作用下的火灾烟气沉降距离。此外,本研究课题还采用了模拟实验及CFD数值模拟等研究手段。
因而,本论文主要由四个部分组成。第一部分是实验部分,实验通过改变火源条件、烟气层温度、烟气层厚度以及喷水压力,观测了不同实验条件下的烟气沉降距离,并获得了有价值的实验结论,指出低温烟气在高喷水压力条件下易发生严重的沉降现象。此外,通过测试和分析喷雾前、后的烟气的温度分布规律,辨析了水颗粒的卷吸作用对烟气沉降的重要性。该实验成果不仅是本文第二部分模型建立的基础,也为CFD数值模拟(本文第三部分)提供了模拟参数和对比数据。
在本文第二部分中,以适用于现有火灾区域模型为目的,建立了火灾烟气在水颗粒作用下沉降距离的理论预测模型。模型是以一定的假设条件为基础,首先建立了水颗粒与烟气相互作用区域内新的合力平衡体系,即水颗粒对烟气施加的向下拖曳力、水颗粒对烟气冷却导致烟气具有的向下浮力以及烟气沉降到下层冷空气层具有的向上浮力之间的平衡,通过该合力平衡体系可量化烟气在水颗粒作用下的沉降距离,也进一步说明了经典的Bullen理论存在的缺陷。在模型中,通过跟踪计算单个水颗粒的动力学特性而获得整个喷雾(淋)区域形状以及区域内水颗粒对烟气的拖曳力大小,同时还考虑了水颗粒对烟气的冷却作用,以及在水颗粒卷吸作用下喷雾(淋)区域内、外的气体传质过程。模型所需的输入参数包括：喷头流量速率、喷头孔径、水颗粒初始粒径、水颗粒初始温度、喷射角度、初始烟气层厚度及温度。模型输出参数则有：水颗粒速度、水颗粒轨迹、水颗粒粒径、拖曳力、烟气浮力、喷雾(淋)区域内烟气速度及温度、被卷吸的气体质量速率、水颗粒与烟气间的热交换速率及烟气沉降距离。其中,烟气沉降距离是根据烟气减速为零时的位置计算得到。
本文还通过一系列实验检验了模型预测烟气沉降距离的精度,由于结果表明模型预测结果对平均颗粒粒径(通过Cm)和喷射角度(θ)较为敏感,通过敏感性分析为实验喷头的上述两参数提出了合理的推荐值。模型预测水颗粒与烟气间的热交换速率的精度则通过另一组实验进行了检验,对比结果同样显示了良好的预测结果。
此外,还开展了大量的模型测试研究,测试变量包括喷射角度、水颗粒粒径、水颗粒初始速度、喷头流量速率、烟气层温度及厚度。基于上述测试,仔细分析和研究了单个水颗粒在不同条的运动特性,水颗粒与周围气体环境的相互作用现象以及不同喷雾(淋)条件下的烟气沉降规律。研究表明喷雾(淋)区域形状与水颗粒粒径有密切关系。另外,部分实验结论也得到模型测试结果的确认,例如,在低温烟气在高喷水压力条件下易发生严重的沉降现象。研究还指出在一定的喷雾条件下,因烟气温度造成的烟气沉降距离的差异并不受烟气厚度的明显影响,但该结论并不适用于较簿或较低温的烟气层。再者,研究发现当烟气层厚度薄于一个临界值时,烟气沉降距离会骤升,表明此时烟气容易直接接沉降至地面,该现象是由于大量冷空气被卷吸进入沉降烟气导致烟气向上浮力减小,而高喷水压力(高流量速率、小颗粒平均粒径)、低烟气温度和小喷射角度会使得发生该现象的临界烟气层厚度变薄。因而,在实际火灾中,由于薄烟层形成的阶段是火灾初期蓄烟阶段,且烟气温度相对较低,所以此时开启喷淋最可能会引起严重的烟气沉降现象,对人员疏散造成不利的影响。从这方面考虑,减小喷头流量速率或延迟响应可能是合适宜的。
本论文第三部分主要是对喷雾条件下烟气沉降现象进行CFD数值模拟。为了说明该现象能很好地被CFD模拟和预测,将模拟结果与第一部分开展的实验进行了对比。CFD模拟工具选用了是基于LES (large eddy simulation)湍流模拟的FDS(Fire dynamic simulator)对比内容包括喷雾前、后的温度分布及喷雾后的烟气沉降距离,对比结果显示FDS均较好地预测了实验结果,重现了实验现象。在此基础上,模拟显示的详细流场信息也进一步确认了实验研究所强调的卷吸现象。
最后,本论文采用FDS初步讨论了隧道火灾烟气在水喷淋条件下的沉降现象和规律。模拟工况考虑了不同的喷淋条件及两种隧道通风条件：自然通风及2m/s的纵向通风。研究表明隧道火灾烟气沉降与火源规模、喷淋条件及隧道通风有密切关系。在隧道自然通风条件下,单个喷头对初期火灾烟气有强烈的沉降作用,烟气被直接沉降到地面,但此时沉降烟气对下部空问能见度影响较弱,这符合模型测试研究结论,即初期火灾烟气具有温度低、厚度薄的特点,易发生沉降,且烟气在沉降过程中会卷吸大量空气。随着火灾的发展,伴随着更多火灾烟气被沉降到地面,能见度也不断下降。然而,当烟气温度随着火灾规模的变大而不断升高后,隧道下部的能见度会有所提高,表明此时烟气沉降程度较小。而在隧道纵向通风条件下,纵向风速会加速破坏火源下游烟气层的分层现象,但有利于维持上游回流烟气层的稳定。研究还指出无论在何种通风条件下,随着喷头流量速率的提高和喷头个数的增加,烟气均可能发生严重的沉降。此外,火源对周围气体的卷吸作用加速了烟气在隧道底部的扩散,使得火场附近的能见度降低得更快。上述研究结论均能很好地被本文相关理论研究所诠释。第二部分建立的理论模型甚至可以较好地反映在隧道自然通风及单个水喷淋条件下的烟气沉降现象。另外,模拟结果还反映了理论模型对区域温度分布描述的合理性。根据上述研究发现,为避免或缓解实际隧道中自动水喷雾(淋)系统对火灾烟气产生严重的沉降作用,提出如下建议和参考：不同的喷雾(淋)条件对烟气沉降作用程度不同,在设计中应充分考虑喷头选型及喷水压力,可辅助于本文所建立的理论模型及FDS模型进行评价；尽可能仅开启直接作用于火源的喷头,从而减小与烟气相互作用的喷头数量;对于纵向通风方式的隧道,若火源下游附近无疏散人员,应将隧道纵向风速开到最大,一方面缩短烟气回流的距离,甚至完全抑制烟气回流,另一方面也有利于维持回流烟气层在水喷雾(淋)条件下的稳定,然而若火源下游附近仍有疏散人员,需慎重开启水喷雾(淋)系统。
总而言之,本论文研究有利于更好地理解水颗粒与烟气间的相互作用,阐述了火灾烟气层在水颗粒作用下的基本沉降规律。所建立的理论模型可用于预测和评价实际烟气在水喷雾(淋)作用下的沉降程度。与此同时,一些研究结论可为自动水喷雾(淋)系统在实际隧道中的设计及控制提供的依据和参考。
Fire smoke, causing most of the fire victims, is the most serious threat for people evacuating during fire disasters. Although fixed water spray/sprinkler systems are being widely used for the fire protection of buildings, the water droplets discharged from the nozzles of these systems are able to disturb a stratification of fire smoke and cause a serious downward smoke displacement ('smoke logging') to threaten the people evacuating in fire environments. Due to lack of sufficient knowledge to understand this phenomenon, it is a potential risk for fire safety, so that installing the fixed water spray/sprinkler system in tunnels to improve the tunnel fire safety is still a controversial topic in the world. So far, hardly any European countries take this measure as a regular safety facility in tunnels.
The precondition for good prediction of the downward smoke displacement induced by water droplets is essentially to understand the interaction between water droplets and hot smoke, including mass and heat transfer between each other. This is a very complex topic related to the two-phase flow. Normally, the cooling effect and downward drag force from water droplets are recognised as two mechanisms for the smoke logging. Based on some simplifications, even ignoring the heat transfer between water droplets and hot smoke, the classical theory determines the smoke logging from the balance between the drag force exerted on the smoke by the droplets and the buoyancy force on the smoke. This force balance is revisited in the present work, including the net downward buoyancy in the cooled region in the smoke layer, which has been ignored in the existing models. It is illustrated that the classical theory is not valid in general. An improved model is developed. It can be incorporated into existing fire zone models to quantify the downward smoke layer displacement, the main goal of this thesis.
This research topic is also investigated by means of experiments and CFD (computational fluid dynamics) simulations.
Thus, this thesis consists of four parts. The first part concerns the experimental study of the downward displacement of fire-induced smoke by water droplets. The downward smoke layer displacement as a result of the interaction with the water droplets is quantified for a wide range of settings, including variable fire conditions, smoke layer temperature, smoke layer thickness and water spray operation pressure. Useful conclusions are drawn from the phenomenological observations. It is illustrated that smoke with low temperature under high spray operation pressure is likely to have a large downward smoke displacement. The experiments also include temperature measurements, allowing highlighting the importance of entrainment processes in the downward smoke displacement phenomenon. The experimental outcomes have been used as the basis for the development of the model in the second part of this thesis. At the same time, they serve as experimental data set for the CFI) simulations (third part of the thesis).
In the second part of this thesis, a stand-alone analytical model is described to quantify the downward smoke displacement caused by a water spray from a sprinkler/spray nozzle, for use in two-zone model simulations. The underlying assumptions are identified and the global balance is described between downward drag force, potentially downward buoyancy due to a cooling effect within the water spray envelope in the smoke layer, and the upward buoyant force in the ambient air below the smoke layer. From this balance, the downward smoke displacement is quantified. It is explained that the classical Bullen criterion for smoke layer stability is in general not valid. There is always downward smoke displacement, although potentially small, depending on the circumstances. The tracking of individual water droplets leads to the evolution of the spray envelope radius and provides the total downward drag force on the smoke. Smoke flow ('entrainment') into and out of the water spray envelope is incorporated, as well as a model for the heat exchange between the smoke and the water droplets. The model input quantities are:water flow rate, orifice diameter, droplet diameter, spray angle, initial smoke layer thickness and temperature, and ambient air temperature. The output quantities are:droplet velocity, droplet trajectory, droplet diameter, drag force, smoke buoyancy, smoke velocity and smoke temperature inside spray region, entrainment mass flow rate, heat exchange rate between droplets and smoke. The downward smoke displacement could be determined by the position where smoke velocity equals to zero. The quality of the model predictions for downward smoke displacement is illustrated for a range of experimental conditions. Results are shown to be sensitive to the mean droplet diameter and spray angle, though, and combinations of values of these parameters are suggested for the sprinkler considered. In addition, the quality of the model predictions of heat transfer rate between droplets and hot smoke is also illustrated by good agreement with another set of experiments. Additionally, an extensive model test study is presented, varying the water spray angle at the nozzle, the water droplet diameter, the droplet initial velocity, the water flow rate of the nozzle, the smoke layer temperature and the smoke layer thickness. Based on these testing results, the motions of a single water droplet in different conditions, the interaction between droplets and ambient gas phase, the smoke downward displacement varying with different conditions are all investigated very carefully. It is highlighted that the drag force and the shape of the spray region are in close relation to the droplet diameter. Some conclusions drawn in the experimental part, e.g. smoke with low temperature under high spray operation pressure is likely to have a large downward smoke displacement, are also confirmed by the test results. It is also highlighted that the shift in downward smoke displacement due to the differences in initial smoke layer temperature is relatively independent of smoke thickness, except for very thin or low temperature smoke layer. Furthermore, a practically important phenomenon is identified, namely an abrupt strong downward smoke layer displacement when the initial smoke layer thickness is below to a certain value. The explanation is that, due to entrainment of cool air into the water spray envelope, the upward buoyancy flow diminishes. This phenomenon is more serious under the high water operation pressure (large water flow rate and small mean diameter of the droplets), small spray angle and low smoke temperature. Therefore, this is particularly dangerous during the smoke layer build-up phase and it might be advantageous to opt for sprinklers with moderate water flow rates and late response in this respect.
The third part of this thesis focuses on CFD simulations of downward smoke layer displacement under different spray conditions. In order to verify whether the downward smoke displacement under spray conditions can be predicted accurately by means of CFD simulation, it is important to make the comparison of simulation results to the experimental observations as described in the second part. The simulations are carried out by FDS (Fire Dynamics Simulator) which is a CFD model for fire simulation using the LES (large eddy simulation) approach for turbulence. The results, focusing on the temperature distribution and the downward smoke displacement, reveal that FDS can reconstruct the experimental observations successfully under the typical experimental conditions. Based on the success of the simulations, the entrainment process highlighted in the analysis of the experiments is confirmed, as seen in detail from the results of the simulations.
In the final part of this thesis, the smoke downward displacement induced by droplets in a tunnel fire is briefly investigated with FDS simulations. Two types of sprinklers, as well as two kinds of tunnel ventilation conditions, natural ventilation and longitudinal ventilation with2m/s, are considered in the simulations. Ihe fire is assumed to be a t2growing fire. The simulation results indicate that the severity of smoke downward displacement depends on the fire scale, sprinkler and the ventilation conditions. In the tunnel with the natural ventilation condition, single sprinkler can induce the fire smoke to the floor directly at the initial stage of the fire, because the smoke layer is thin and its temperature is relative low. As it is illustrated in the model tests that a large amount of cool air entrained into the downward smoke, the visibility of the space occupied by the downward smoke decreases not very seriously at this stage. After that, the visibility would go worse when more smoke is deduced down continually. However, this trend could be stopped and turn to a better visibility, as the increase of the smoke temperature due to the increase of HRR with time. In the tunnel with longitudinal ventilation condition, the longitudinal ventilation could worsen the stratification of the smoke layer in the downstream of the fire, but could keep the back-layering in upstream of the fire more stable. It is highlighted that in both ventilation conditions, the serious smoke logging could happen when increasing the number and the mass flow rate of the sprinklers. Additionally, the entrainment effect of the fire would accelerate the downward smoke spreading in the bottom space of the tunnel, and make the visibility worse. All these findings can be explained well by the theory as developed in this thesis. The model developed in the second part even has good predictions to reflect the smoke logging in the condition of a single sprinkler interacting with the tunnel fire smoke under the natural ventilation. The description in the model that the temperature inside the spray region is relatively lower than the surrounding hot smoke is also confirmed by the simulation results. Based on the above findings, some conclusions for the fixed water spray/sprinkler systems in practical tunnels to avoid serious smoke logging are drawn:the severity of the smoke logging is related closely to spray/sprinkler condition, so that the sprinkler type and water operation pressure should be considered carefully in the stage of design, which could be assisted by the model in this thesis and the FDS model; It is better only to actuate the sprinkler/spray nozzle near the fire; In the longitudinal ventilation tunnel, the spray/sprinkler should be controlled very carefully if there are still evacuators under the sprinklers in the downstream of the fire; Otherwise, it is better to provide the largest longitudinal ventilation to avoid back-layering in upstream, or keep the back-layering more stable under the spray/sprinkler conditions.
To summarise, this thesis helps to better understand the interaction between water droplets and fire smoke, and reveals how the downward smoke displacement is affected by the water droplets discharged from a sprinkler or spray nozzle. The developed model could be a useful tool for practice to quantify the downward smoke layer displacement. Furthermore, some research results could be referred to as guideline for designing a fixed water fixed water spray/sprinkler system in tunnels to avoid or reduce the downward smoke displacement.
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