保护灰熊:美国黄石国家公园野生动物保护理念的演进
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摘要
自19世纪90年代起,在黄石国家公园里观看熊逐渐成为公园游客必经体验。然而,随着人熊接触机会增加,人熊冲突逐渐增多,灰熊的保护成为管理者的一大难题。20世纪60年代以前,黄石公园注重对熊的管理。20世纪60年代之后,由于社会舆论的压力和科学的介入,公园开始注重对人的管理。随着黄石公园周边保护区的纷纷建立和联邦环保法案的持续推动,20世纪70年代"大黄石生态系统"保护理念形成,这是灰熊保护理念的根本转变,并且意味着黄石公园里的野生动物保护进入新的阶段。
Watching grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park gradually became an important experience for tourists since the 1890 s. Grizzly-human conflicts gradually increased along with increasing contact. Consequently,grizzly management became a difficult problem which puzzled park managers. Managers put more emphasis on the management of bears before 1960 s. Because of the pressure of public opinion and scientific intervention managers began to focus on the management of people after the 1960 s. With the establishment of protected areas around Yellowstone National Park and the continued promotion of the federal environmental protection act,the concept of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem appeared in the 1970 s. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem idea marks a fundamental change in the concept of grizzly bear conservation,marking a new stage in wildlife protection of Yellowstone National Park.
Watching grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park gradually became an important experience for tourists since the 1890 s. Grizzly-human conflicts gradually increased along with increasing contact. Consequently,grizzly management became a difficult problem which puzzled park managers. Managers put more emphasis on the management of bears before 1960 s. Because of the pressure of public opinion and scientific intervention managers began to focus on the management of people after the 1960 s. With the establishment of protected areas around Yellowstone National Park and the continued promotion of the federal environmental protection act,the concept of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem appeared in the 1970 s. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem idea marks a fundamental change in the concept of grizzly bear conservation,marking a new stage in wildlife protection of Yellowstone National Park.
引文
[1]MEYER J L.The spirit of Yellowstone:the cultural evolution of a national park[M].Lanham,MD:Rowman&Littlefield,1996:17.
[2]WONDRAK A K.(Do not)Feed the bears:policy,culture,and the historical narrative of the Yellowstone bear[D].Colorado:University of Colorado,2002.
[3]MOMENT G B.Man-grizzly problems-past and present,implications for endangered species[J].BioScience,1970,20(21):1142-1144.
[4]SHEPARD P,SANDERS B.The sacred paw:the bear in nature,myth,and literature[M].New York:Viking Adult,1985.
[5]罗德里克·弗雷泽·纳什.荒野与美国思想[M].侯文蕙,侯钧,译.北京:中国环境科学出版社,2012:139-142.
[6]SMITH F D.Book of a hundred bears[M].Chicago:Rand,McNally&Company,1909:113.
[7]付成双.美国生态中心主义观念的形成及其影响[J].世界历史,2013(1):28-40;158.
[8]RUNTE A.Trains of discovery:railroads and the legacy of our national parks[M].New York:Roberts Rinehart,2011.
[9]BYRAND K.Integrating preservation and development at Yellowstone's Upper Geyser Basin,1915-1940[J].Historical Geography,2007,35:136-159.
[10]COLE G F.Preservation and management of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park[J].Bears:Their Biology and Management,1972,2:274-288.
[11]ROGERS E.Superintendent's annual report[R]Yellowstone National Park,1943.
[12]SCHULLERY P.The bears of Yellowstone[M].Worland:High Plains Publishing Company,1992:291,293.
[13]GUNTHER K A.Bear management in Yellowstone National Park,1960-93[J].Bears:Their Biology and Management,1994,9:549-560
[14]SELLARS R W.Preserving nature in the national parks:a history[M].New Haven:Yale University Press,1997:253.
[15]CRAIGHEAD F.Increasing concern over grizzly bear survival[M]Jackson Hole Guide,1969.
[16]PRIMM S A,CLARK T W.The Greater Yellowstone policy debate:what is the policy problem[J].Policy Sciences,1996,29(2):137-166.
[17]包庆德,张秀芬.《生态学基础》:对生态学从传统向现代的推进---纪念E.P.奥德姆诞辰100周年[J].生态学报,2013,33(24):7623-7629.
[18]KEITER R.The Greater Yellowstone idea[C]//SCHULLERY P,STEVENSON S.People and Place:the Human Experience in Greater Yellowstone,NPS,YCFR,YNP,2004:206.
[19]SCHULLERY P.Searching for Yellowstone:ecology and wonder in the last wilderness[M].Montana Historical Society,2004:201.
[20]罗德里克·弗雷泽·纳什.大自然的权利:环境伦理学史[M].杨通进,译.青岛:青岛出版社,2005:199.
[21]滕海建.战后美国环境政策史[M].长春:吉林文史出版社,2007:96.
[22]Endangered Species Act of 1973[S].Department of the Interior,U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Washington,D.C.20240:1.
[23]JOHNSON J.Knowing Yellowstone:science in America's first national park[M].Lanham,Maryland:Taylor Trade Publishing,2010:57.
[24]ARHA K,EMMERICH J.Grizzly bear conservation in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem:a case study in the endangered species act and federalism[C]//ARHA K,THOMPSON B H,Jr.The Endangered Species Act and Federalism:Effective Conservation Through Greater State Commitment,New York:RFF Press,2011:266.
[25]KNIGHT R R,EBERHARDT L L.Population dynamics of Yellowstone grizzly bears[J].Ecology,1985,66(2):323-334.
[26]PARKER I D,FELDPAUSCH-PARKER A M.Yellowstone grizzly delisting rhetoric:an analysis of the online debate[J].Wildlife Society Bulletin,2013,37(2):248-255.
(1)代表作品有Paul Schullery. The Bears of Yellowstone[M]. Worland Wyoming:High Plains Publishing Company,1992; Alice Karen Wondrak.(Do not)Feed the Bears:Policy,Culture,and the Historical Narrative of the Yellowstone Bear[D]. University of Colorado,2002.
(1)当时,黄石公园里的灰熊喜欢在垃圾场活动,美洲黑熊习惯在路边向游客乞讨食物。
(1)《濒危物种法》不仅仅适用于野生动物保护区或联邦国有土地,也适用于私有土地,即私有土地主也必须承认其土地上的非人类存在物的存在权利。
[2]WONDRAK A K.(Do not)Feed the bears:policy,culture,and the historical narrative of the Yellowstone bear[D].Colorado:University of Colorado,2002.
[3]MOMENT G B.Man-grizzly problems-past and present,implications for endangered species[J].BioScience,1970,20(21):1142-1144.
[4]SHEPARD P,SANDERS B.The sacred paw:the bear in nature,myth,and literature[M].New York:Viking Adult,1985.
[5]罗德里克·弗雷泽·纳什.荒野与美国思想[M].侯文蕙,侯钧,译.北京:中国环境科学出版社,2012:139-142.
[6]SMITH F D.Book of a hundred bears[M].Chicago:Rand,McNally&Company,1909:113.
[7]付成双.美国生态中心主义观念的形成及其影响[J].世界历史,2013(1):28-40;158.
[8]RUNTE A.Trains of discovery:railroads and the legacy of our national parks[M].New York:Roberts Rinehart,2011.
[9]BYRAND K.Integrating preservation and development at Yellowstone's Upper Geyser Basin,1915-1940[J].Historical Geography,2007,35:136-159.
[10]COLE G F.Preservation and management of grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park[J].Bears:Their Biology and Management,1972,2:274-288.
[11]ROGERS E.Superintendent's annual report[R]Yellowstone National Park,1943.
[12]SCHULLERY P.The bears of Yellowstone[M].Worland:High Plains Publishing Company,1992:291,293.
[13]GUNTHER K A.Bear management in Yellowstone National Park,1960-93[J].Bears:Their Biology and Management,1994,9:549-560
[14]SELLARS R W.Preserving nature in the national parks:a history[M].New Haven:Yale University Press,1997:253.
[15]CRAIGHEAD F.Increasing concern over grizzly bear survival[M]Jackson Hole Guide,1969.
[16]PRIMM S A,CLARK T W.The Greater Yellowstone policy debate:what is the policy problem[J].Policy Sciences,1996,29(2):137-166.
[17]包庆德,张秀芬.《生态学基础》:对生态学从传统向现代的推进---纪念E.P.奥德姆诞辰100周年[J].生态学报,2013,33(24):7623-7629.
[18]KEITER R.The Greater Yellowstone idea[C]//SCHULLERY P,STEVENSON S.People and Place:the Human Experience in Greater Yellowstone,NPS,YCFR,YNP,2004:206.
[19]SCHULLERY P.Searching for Yellowstone:ecology and wonder in the last wilderness[M].Montana Historical Society,2004:201.
[20]罗德里克·弗雷泽·纳什.大自然的权利:环境伦理学史[M].杨通进,译.青岛:青岛出版社,2005:199.
[21]滕海建.战后美国环境政策史[M].长春:吉林文史出版社,2007:96.
[22]Endangered Species Act of 1973[S].Department of the Interior,U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service Washington,D.C.20240:1.
[23]JOHNSON J.Knowing Yellowstone:science in America's first national park[M].Lanham,Maryland:Taylor Trade Publishing,2010:57.
[24]ARHA K,EMMERICH J.Grizzly bear conservation in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem:a case study in the endangered species act and federalism[C]//ARHA K,THOMPSON B H,Jr.The Endangered Species Act and Federalism:Effective Conservation Through Greater State Commitment,New York:RFF Press,2011:266.
[25]KNIGHT R R,EBERHARDT L L.Population dynamics of Yellowstone grizzly bears[J].Ecology,1985,66(2):323-334.
[26]PARKER I D,FELDPAUSCH-PARKER A M.Yellowstone grizzly delisting rhetoric:an analysis of the online debate[J].Wildlife Society Bulletin,2013,37(2):248-255.
(1)代表作品有Paul Schullery. The Bears of Yellowstone[M]. Worland Wyoming:High Plains Publishing Company,1992; Alice Karen Wondrak.(Do not)Feed the Bears:Policy,Culture,and the Historical Narrative of the Yellowstone Bear[D]. University of Colorado,2002.
(1)当时,黄石公园里的灰熊喜欢在垃圾场活动,美洲黑熊习惯在路边向游客乞讨食物。
(1)《濒危物种法》不仅仅适用于野生动物保护区或联邦国有土地,也适用于私有土地,即私有土地主也必须承认其土地上的非人类存在物的存在权利。